The environment in which Islam emerged was marked by a diverse mix of religious beliefs, including various Jewish, Christian, and pagan traditions. Among these were several heterodox Christian groups and Gnostic sects, such as the Ebionites, Docetists, and Monophysites, whose beliefs diverged significantly from mainstream Christianity. The presence of these groups in and around the Arabian Peninsula created a religious landscape that included many non-canonical teachings and apocryphal traditions.
During the seventh century, the Arabian Peninsula was home to a variety of religious communities. Orthodox Jews and Christians coexisted alongside groups like the Ebionites, who rejected the divinity of Jesus and emphasized strict monotheism, and Gnostic sects, which viewed Jesus as a purely spiritual figure rather than a human one. These sects were often marginalized by dominant religious authorities such as the Roman-Byzantine Church and sometimes relocated to more remote regions, including parts of Arabia, where they preserved their teachings in oral and written forms.
Several narratives in the Qur’an related to Jesus reflect motifs found not in the canonical Christian scriptures but in apocryphal gospels and Gnostic writings. For example, the story of Jesus speaking from the cradle closely parallels tales from the Arabic Infancy Gospel and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. The account of Jesus creating birds from clay and breathing life into them also appears in these non-canonical texts. The Qur’an’s emphasis on Jesus as a prophet rather than a divine figure aligns more closely with the views of Ebionite Christians and Islamic theology than with Nicene Christianity. These parallels suggest that Muhammad or those in his community were likely exposed to the teachings and stories circulating among heterodox Christian groups.
Islamic tradition records interactions between Muhammad and certain Christian figures who may have been linked to these diverse sects. Notably, the monk Bahīra, described as a Nestorian Christian with beliefs considered heretical by Byzantine standards, is said to have recognized signs of prophethood in Muhammad during his youth. Another important figure is Waraqah ibn Nawfal, a relative of Muhammad’s wife Khadijah, who was a Christian familiar with Hebrew scriptures and who supported Muhammad’s early teachings. These encounters could have introduced Muhammad to religious narratives that were outside the scope of orthodox Christianity.
Although Islam does not embrace the dualistic worldview characteristic of Gnosticism, some thematic similarities are apparent. Both Islamic and many Gnostic traditions place importance on special knowledge as a path to spiritual understanding. The denial of Jesus’s full divinity is another point of convergence, albeit for different theological reasons. Furthermore, the Qur’an’s encouragement of the pursuit of knowledge resonates with the Gnostic emphasis on hidden wisdom.
While there is no direct evidence that Muhammad formally engaged with Gnostic or apocryphal Christian groups, the incorporation of non-canonical stories and theological elements in the Qur’an indicates indirect exposure to such religious traditions. These influences likely reached Muhammad through oral transmission, travelers, or peripheral religious communities in Arabia. The resulting message reflects the complex and pluralistic religious environment of the time, shaped by a variety of competing and overlapping beliefs.